Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006). Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 354-380. [490k pdf]

A meta-analysis of the distributed practice effect was performed to illuminate the effects of temporal variables that have been neglected in previous reviews. This review found 839 assessments of distributed practice in 317 experiments located in 184 articles. Effects of spacing (consecutive massed presentations vs. spaced learning episodes) and lag (less spaced vs. more spaced learning episodes) were examined, as were expanding inter-study interval effects. Analyses suggest that inter-study interval (ISI) and retention interval operate jointly to affect final test retention; specifically, the ISI producing maximal retention increased as retention interval increased. Areas needing future research and theoretical implications are discussed.

2011 (cited by 2)

• Sobel, H. S., Cepeda, N. J., & Kapler, I. V. (2011). Spacing effects in real-world classroom vocabulary learning. Applied Cognitive Psychology.
• Xue, G., Mei, L., Chen, C., Lu, Z.-L., Poldrack, R., & Dong, Q. (2011). Spaced learning enhances subsequent recognition memory by reducing neural repetition suppression. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

2010 (cited by 36)

• Arthur, W., Day, E. A., Villado, A. J., Boatman, P. R., Kowollik, V., Bennett, W., & Bhupatkar, A. (2010). The effect of distributed practice on immediate posttraining, and long-term performance on a complex command-and-control simulation task. Human Performance, 23, 428-445.
• Benjamin, A. S., & Tullis, J. (2010). What makes distributed practice effective? Cognitive Psychology, 61, 228-247.
• Bird, S. (2010). Effects of distributed practice on the acquisition of second language English syntax. Applied Psycholinguistics, 31, 635-650.
• Callan, D. E., & Schweighofer, N. (2010). Neural correlates of the spacing effect in explicit verbal semantic encoding support the deficient-processing theory. Human Brain Mapping, 31, 645-659.
• Campos, T. F., Barroso, M. T. M., & Menezes, A. A. D. (2010). Encoding, storage and retrieval processes of the memory and the implications for motor practice in stroke patients. Neurorehabilitation, 26, 135-142.
• Cannan, D. E., & Schweighofer, N. (2010). Neural correlates of the spacing effect in explicit verbal semantic encoding support the deficient-processing theory. Human Brain Mapping, 31, 645-659.
• Cannon-Bowers, J. A., Bowers, C., & Procci, K. (2010). Optimizing learning in surgical simulations: Guidelines from the science of learning and human performance. Surgical Clinics of North America, 90, 583-603.
• Cohen, A. S. (2010). Brainscape's "confidence-based repetition" methodology.
• Cohen, A. S. (2010). Evaluating "intelligent cumulative exposure" as a new method of second language acquisition.
• Crede, M., Roch, S. G., & Kieszczynka, U. M. (2010). Class attendance in college: A meta-analytic review of the relationship of class attendance with grades and student characteristics. Review of Educational Research, 80, 272-295.
• Delaney, P. F., Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L., & Spirgel, A. (2010). Spacing and testing effects: A deeply critical, lengthy, and at times discursive review of the literature. In Psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory, Vol. 53 (pp. 63-147).
• Ding, M. X., & Li, X. B. (2010). A comparative analysis of the distrubutive property in US and Chinese elementary mathematics textbooks. Cognition and Instruction, 28, 146-180.
• Finley, J. R., Tullis, J. G., & Benjamin, A. S. (2010). Metacognitive control of learning and remembering. In M. S. Khine (Ed.) New Science of Learning: Cognition, Computers, and Collaboration in Education (pp. 109-131).
• Green, C. S., Li, R. J., & Bavelier, D. (2010). Perceptual learning during action video game playing. Topics in Cognitive Science, 2, 202-216.
• Isarida, T., & Isarida, T. K. (2010). Effects of simple- and complex-place contexts in the multiple-context paradigm. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 63, 2399-2412.
• Koelewijn, L. (2010). Optimizing fact learning gains: Using personal parameter settings to improve the learning schedule. Masters Thesis, University of Groningen.
• Kornell, N., Castel, A. D., Eich, T. S., & Bjork, R. A. (2010). Spacing as the friend of both memory and induction in young and older adults. Psychology and Aging, 25, 498-503.
• Kupper-Tetzel, C. E. (2010). Storage and retrieval processes in the distributed practice effect: From laboratory to educational settings. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Mannheim.
• Lindsey, S., & Gaskell, M. G. (2010). A complementary account of word learning in L1 and L2. Language Learning, 60, 45-63.
• Marzano, R. J. (2010). When practice makes perfect ... sense. Educational Leadership, 68, 81-83.
• Meng, Z. Q., Liu, C., Hu, X. T., & Ma, Y. Y. (2010). Irregular morphine administration affects the retention but not acquisition of conditioned place preference in rats. Brain Research, 1311, 86-92.
• Moher, T., Wiley, J., Jaeger, A., Silva, B. L., Novellis, F., & Klib, D. (2010). Spatial and temporal embedding for science inquiry: An empirical study of student learning. Proceedings of the 9th International Conference of the Learning Sciences, Vol. 1.
• Pyc, M. A. (2010). Why is retrieval practice beneficial for memory? An evaluation of the mediator shift hypothesis. Doctoral dissertation, Kent State University.
• Pyc, M. A., & Dunlosky, J. (2010). Toward and understanding of students' allocation of study time: Why do they decide to space their practice? Memory and Cognition, 38, 431-440.
• Smith, T. A., & Kimball, D. R. (2010). Learning from feedback: Spacing and the delay-retention effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36, 80-95.
• Son, L. K. (2010). Metacognitive control and the spacing effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36, 255-262.
• Storm, B. C., Bjork, R. A., & Storm, J. C. (2010). Optimizing retrieval as a learning event: When and why expanding retrieval practice enhances long-term retention. Memory and Cognition, 244-253.
• Tatum, B. C. (2010). Accelerated education: Learning on the fast track. Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching, 3, 34-50.
• Taylor, K., & Rohrer, D. (2010). The effects of interleaved practice. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24, 837-848.
• Toppino, T. C., & Cohen, M. S. (2010). Metacognitive control and spaced practice: Clarifying what people do and why. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36, 1480-1491.
• Trapp, A. (2010). Teaching you to suck Eggs? Using psychology to teach psychology. In D. Upton, & A. Trapp (Eds.), Teaching psychology in higher education.
• Vlach, H. A., & Sandhofer, C. M. (2010). Desirable difficulties in cross-situational word learning. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Cognitive Science Society.
• Wiley, J., & Jee, B. D. (2010). Cognition: Overview and recent trends. In P. Peterson, E. Baker, & B. McGaw (Eds.), International Encyclopedia of Education, vol. 5 (pp. 245-250). Oxford: Elsevier.
• Wilfley, D. E., van Buren, D. J., Theim, K. R., Stein, R. I., Saalens, B. E., Ezzey, F., Russina, A. C., Perri, M. G., & Epstein, L. H. (2010). The use of biosimulation in the design of a novel multilevel weight loss maintenance program for overweight children. Obesity, 18, S91-S98.
• Wilkins, N. J., & Rawson, K. A. (2010). Loss of cognitive skill across delays: Constraints for theories of cognitive skill acquisition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36, 1134-1149.
• Xue, G., Mei, L. L., Chen, C. S., Lu, Z. L., Poldrack, R. A., & Dong, Q. (2010). Facilitating memory for novel characters by reducing neural repetition suppression in the left fusiform gyrus. PLOS One, 5, e13204.

2009 (cited by 33)

• Bould, M. D., & Naik, V. N. (2009). Teaching how to expect the unexpected: Improving the retention of knowledge for rare clinical events. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia, 56, 14-18.
• Carpenter, S. K., Pashler, H., & Cepeda, N. J. (2009). Using tests to enhance 8th grade students' retention of U. S. history facts. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 23, 760-771.
• Carter, M. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. Educational Psychology, 29, 867-869.
• Cepeda, N. J., Coburn, N., Rohrer, D., Wixted, J. T., Mozer, M. C., & Pashler, H. (2009). Optimizing distributed practice: Theoretical analysis and practical implications. Experimental Psychology, 56, 236-246.
• Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. A. (2009). Learning and teaching early math: The learning trajectories approach. New York: Routledge.
• Dinnevbeil, L., Pretti-Frontczak, K., & McInerney, W. (2009). A consultive itinerant approach to service delivery: Considerations for the early childhood community. Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 40, 435-445.
• Garcia, J. A. M. (2009). Discriminant distance: A new form of evaluating the distance between variables. Methodology: European Journal of Research Methods for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 5, 137-144.
• Glass, A. L. (2009). The effect of distributed questioning with varied examples on exam performance on inference questions. Educational Psychology, 29, 831-848.
• Goverover, Y., Hillary, F. G., Chiaravalloti, N., Arango-Lasprilla, J. C., & DeLuca, J. (2009). A functional application of the spacing effect to improve learning and memory in persons with multiple sclerosis. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 31, 513-522.
• Holzinger, A., Kickmeier-Rust, M. D., & Ebner, M. (2009). Interactive technology for enhancing distributed learning: A study on weblogs. Proceedings of the 23rd British HCI Group Annual Conference on People and Computers: Celebrating People and Technology.
• Hussain, Z., Sekuler, A. B., & Bennett, P. J. (2009). How much practice is needed to produce perceptual learning? Vision Research, 49, 2624-2634.
• Kornell, N. (2009). Optimising learning using flashcards: Spacing is more effective than cramming. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 23, 1297-1317.
• Kornell, N., Hays, M. J., & Bjork, R. A. (2009). Unsuccessful retrieval attempts enhance subsequent learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35, 989-998.
• Lindsey, R., Mozer, M. C., Cepeda, N. J., & Pashler, H. (2009). Optimizing memory retention with cognitive models. In A. Howes, D. Peebles, & R. Cooper (Eds.), Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Cognitive Modeling (ICCM). Manchester, UK.
• Lipowsky, F. (2009). Unterricht. Padagogische Psychologie, 11, 73-101.
• MacLeod, C., Koster, E. H. W., & Fox, E. (2009). Whither cognitive bias modification research? Commentary on the special section articles. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 89-99.
• Martini, P., & Maljkovic, V. (2009). Short-term memory for pictures seen once or twice. Vision Research, 49, 1657-1667.
• Metcalfe, J., Kornell, N., & Finn, B. (2009). Delayed versus immediate feedback in chidlren's and adults' vocabulary learning. Memory and Cognition, 37, 1077-1087.
• Metzler-Baddeley, C., & Baddeley, R. J. (2009). Does adaptive training work? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 23, 254-266.
• Mozer, M. C., Pashler, H., Cepeda, N. J., Lindsey, R., & Vul, E. (2009). Predicting the optimal spacing of study: A multiscale context model of memory. In Y. Bengio, D. Schuurmans, J. Lafferty, C. K. I. Williams, & A. Culotta (Eds.), Advances in Neural Information Systems 22. La Jolla, CA: Neural Information Processing Systems Foundation.
• Noel, H., & Valen, B. (2009). The spacing effect in marketing: A review of extant findings and directions for future research. Psychology and Marketing, 26, 951-969.
• Pagani, M. R., Oishi, K., Gelb, B. D., & Zhong, Y. (2009). The phosphatase SHP2 regulates the spacing effect for long-term memory induction. Cell, 139, 186-198.
• Pyc, M. A., & Rawson, K. A. (2009). Costs and benefits of dropout schedules of test-restudy practice: Implications for student learning. Applied Cognitive Psychology.
• Rittle-Johnson, B., & Koediger, K. (2009). Iterating between lessons on concepts and procedures can improve mathematics knowledge. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 483-500.
• Rohrer, D. (09). Avoidance of overlearning characterizes the spacing effect. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 21, 1001-1012.
• Rohrer, D. (2009). The effects of spacing and mixing practice problems. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 40, 4-17.
• Sadler, F. H. (2009). Help! They still don't understand counting. Teaching Exceptional Children Plus, 6.
• See, J., MacLeod, C., & Bridle, R. (2009). The reduction of anxiety vulnerability through the modification of attentional bias: A real-world study using a home-based cognitive bias modification procedure. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 65-75.
• Son, L. K., & Kornell, N. (2009). Simultaneous decisions at study: Time allocation, ordering, and spacing. Metacognition and Learning, 4, 237-248.
• Toppino, T. C., Cohen, M. S., Davis, M. L., & Moors, A. C. (2009). Metacognitive control over the distribution of practice: When is spacing preferred? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35, 1352-1358.
• Toppino, T. C., Fearnow-Kenney, M. D., Kiepert, M. H., & Teremula, A. C. (2009). The spacing effect in intentional and incidental free recall by children and adults: Limits on the automaticity hypothesis. Memory and Cognition, 37, 316-325.
• van Rijn, H., van Maanen, L., & van Woudenberg, M. (2009). Passing the test: Improving learning gains by balancing spacing and testing effects. In A. Howes, D. Peebles, & R. Cooper (Eds.), Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Cognitive Modeling (ICCM). Manchester, UK.
• Winkens, I., Van Heugten, C. M., Wade, D. T., & Fasotti, L. (2009). Training patients in time pressure management, a cognitive strategy for mental slowness. Clinical Rehabilitation, 23, 79-90.

2008 (cited by 29)

• Benjamin, A. S., de Belle, J. S., Etnyre, B., Polk, T. A., Guadagnoli, M., & Stelmach, G. (2008). Human learning: Biology, Brain, and Neuroscience (Vol. 139, Advances in Psychology). San Diego, CA: Elsevier.
• Bould, M. D., & Naik, V. N. (2008). Teaching how to expect the unexpected: Improving the retention of knowledge for rare clinical events. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia, 56, 14-18.
• Butler, A. C., & Roediger, H. L., III. (2008). Feedback enhances the positive effects and reduces the negative effects of multiple-choice testing. Memory and Cognition, 36, 604-616.
• Cepeda, N. J., Vul, E., Rohrer, D., Wixted, J. T., & Pashler, H. (2008). Spacing effects in learning: A temporal ridgeline of optimal retention. Psychological Science, 19, 1095-1102.
• Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2008). Experimental evaluation of the effects of a research-based preschool mathematics curriculum. American Educational Research Journal, 45, 443-494.
• de Jong-Heeringa, J. L. (2008). Effecten op langere termijn van SpelenderWijs, een programma voor Voor- en Vroegschoolse Educatie. Gronings Instituut voor Onderzoek van Onderwijs.
• Dilworth, C. (2008). The role of the speech language pathologist in acute stroke. Annals of Indian Academy of Neurology, 11, S108-S118.
• Downey, C. J., Steffy, B. E., Poston, W. K., Jr., & English, F. W. (2008). 50 ways to close the achievement gap. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
• Geary, D. C., Boykin, A. W., Embretson, S., Reyna, V., Siegler, R., Berch, D. B., & Graban, J. (2008). Foundations for success: Report of the national mathematics advisory panel. Chapter 4: Report of the task group on learning processes. Washington, D.C.: U. S. Department of Education.
• Glass, A. L., Brill, G., & Ingate, M. (2008). Combined online and in-class pretesting improves exam performance in general psychology. Educational Psychology, 28, 483-503.
• Goverover, Y., Hillary, F. G., Chiarvalloti, N., Arango-Lasprilla, J. C., & Deluca, J. (2008). A functional application of the spacing effect to improve learning and memory in persons with multiple sclerosis. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 11, 1-10.
• Kornell, N., & Bjork, R. A. (2008). Learning concepts and categories: Is spacing the "enemy of induction"? Psychological Science, 19, 585-592.
• Kornell, N., & Bjork, R. A. (2008). Optimizing self-regulated study: The benefits-and costs-of dropping flashcards. Memory, 16, 125-136.
• Larsen, D. P., Butler, A. C., & Roediger, H. L., III. (2008). Test-enhanced learning in medical education. Medical Education, 42, 959-966.
• Litman, L., & Davichi, L. (2008). Distributed learning enhances relational memory consolidation. Learning and Memory, 15, 711-716.
• McCabe, D. P. (2008). The role of covert retrieval in working memory span tasks: Evidence from delayed recall tests. Journal of Memory and Language, 58, 480-494.
• Nessel, D. D., & Dixon, C. N. (2008). Using the language experience approach with English language learners: Strategies for engaging students and developing literacy. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
• Nieuwenhuis, I. L. C., Takashima, A., Oostenveld, R., Fernandez, G., & Jensena, O. (2008). Visual areas become less engaged in associative recall following memory stabilization. NeuroImage, 40, 1319-1327.
• Ramani, G. B., & Siegler, R. S. (2008). Promoting broad and stable improvements in low-income children's numerical knowledge through playing number board games. Child Development, 79, 375-394.
• Rickard, T. C., Lau, J. S.-H., & Pashler, H. (2008). Spacing and the transition from calculation to retrieval. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 15, 656-661.
• Roediger, H. L. (2008). Relativity of remembering: Why the laws of memory vanished. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 225-254.
• Ryan, S. (2008). The effects of a sound field amplification system on managerial time in middle school physical education settings. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 40, 131-137.
• Sandhofer, C. M., & Doumas, L. A. A. (2008). Order of presentation effects in learning color categories. Journal of Cognition and Development, 9, 194-221.
• Son, L. K., & Kornell, N. (2008). Research on the allocation of study time: Key studies from 1890 to the present (and beyond). In J. Dunlosky & R. A. Bjork (Eds.), Handbook of metamemory and memory (pp. 333-354). New York: Taylor and Francis.
• Timbers, T. A., & Rankin, C. H. (2008). Caenorhabditis elegans as a model system in which to study the fundamentals of learning and memory. Advances in Psychology, 139, 227-242.
• Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L., & Bouwmeester, S. (2008). Using latent class modeling to detect bimodality in spacing effect data. Journal of Memory and Language, 59, 545-555.
• Vlach, H. A., Sandhofer, C. M., & Kornell, N. (2008). The spacing effect in children's memory and category induction. Cognition, 109, 163-167.
• Vul, E., Krizay, E., & MacLeod, D. I. A. (2008). The McCollough effect reflects permanent and transient adaptation in early visual cortex. Journal of Vision, 8, 1-12.
• Weigold, A. (2008). The relationship between restudying and testing in the short and long term. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Texas Tech University.

2007 (cited by 22)

• Arthur, W., Jr., Day, E. A., Villado, A. J., Boatman, P. R., Kowollik, V., Bennett, W., Jr., Bhupatkar, A., & Aptima Inc. (2007). Decay, transfer, and the reacquisition of a complex skill: An investigation of practice schedules, observational rehearsal, and individual differences. Storming Media technical report #A667284.
• Balota, D. A., Duckek, J. M., & Logan, J. M. (2007). Is expanded retrieval practice a superior form of spaced retrieval? A critical review of the extant literature. In J. S. Nairne (Ed.), The foundations of remembering: Essays in honor of Henry L. Roediger, III (pp. 83-105). New York: Psychology Press.
• Butler, A. C., & Roediger, H. L. (2007). Testing improves long-term retention in a simulated classroom setting. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 19, 514-527.
• Egan, R. G. (2007). Understanding the effects of different study methods on retention of information and transfer of learning. Unpublished masters thesis, Queen's University.
• Karpicke, J. D., & Roediger, H. L. (2007). Expanding retrieval practice promotes short-term retention, but equally spaced retrieval enhances long-term retention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 33, 704-719.
• Karpicke, J. D., & Roediger, H. L. (2007). Repeated retrieval during learining is the key to long-term retention. Journal of Memory and Language, 57, 151-162.
• Kornell, N., & Bjork, R. A. (2007). The promise and perils of self-regulated study. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 14, 219-224.
• Metcalfe, J., & Kornell, N. (2007). Principles of cognitive science in education: The effects of generation, errors, and feedback. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 14, 225-229.
• Metcalfe, J., Kornell, N., & Son, L. K. (2007). A cognitive-science based programme to enhance study efficacy in a high and low risk setting. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 19, 743-768.
• Moher, T., & Wiley, J. (2007). Classroom space, classroom time, and the representation of dynamic phenomena. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting, Chicago, IL.
• Pashler, H., Bain, P. M., Bottge, B. A., Graesser, A., Koedinger, K., McDaniel, M. A., & Metcalfe, J. (2007). Organizing instruction and study to improve student learning: IES practice guide (NCER 2007-2004). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Research, Institute of Education Sciences, U. S. Department of Education.
• Pashler, H., Rohrer, D., Cepeda, N. J., & Carpenter, S. K. (2007). Enhancing learning and retarding forgetting: Choices and consequences. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 14, 187-193.
• Philips, G. T., Tzvetkova, E. I., & Carew, T. J. (2007). Transient mitogen-activated protein kinase is confined to a narrow temporal window required for the induction of two-trial long-term memory in Aplysia. Journal of Neuroscience, 27, 13701-13705.
• Porritt, M. L. (2007). Fluency in pigeons: The effects of response rate on learning. Doctoral dissertation, Western Michigan University.
• Pyc, M. A., & Rawson, K. A. (2007). Examining the efficiency of schedules of distributed practice. Memory and Cognition, 35, 1917-1927.
• Richland, L. E., Linn, M. C., & Bjork, R. A. (2007). Cognition and instruction: Bridging laboratory and classroom settings. In F. Durso, R. Nickerson, S. Dumais, S. Lewandowski, & T. Perfect (Eds.), Handbook of applied cognition (2nd ed.) (pp. 555-584). West Sussex, England: John Wiley and Sons.
• Rohrer, D., & Pashler, H. (2007). Increasing retention without increasing study time. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 183-186.
• Rohrer, D., & Taylor, K. (2007). The shuffling of mathematics problems improves learning. Instructional Science, 35, 481-498.
• Shively, M. D. (2007). Spacing and lag effects in recognition memory: Time versus intervening items. Masters Thesis, Montana State University.
• Smith, T. A. (2007). Spacing and the delay-retention effect: An alternative explanation of the effects of feedback timing on semantic learning (Masters Thesis, University of Texas at Arlington).
• Soderlund, G. B. W. (2007). Noise improves cognitive performance in children with dysfunctional dopaminergic neurotransmission (Doctoral Dissertation, Stockholm University).
• Takashima, A., Nieuwenhuis, I. L. C., Rijpkema, M., Petersson, K. M., Jensen, O., & Fernandez, G. (2007). Memory trace stabilization leads to large-scale changes in the retrieval network: A functional MRI study on associative memory. Learning and Memory, 14, 472-479.

2006 (cited by 3)

• Balota, D. A., Duchek, J. M., Sergent-Marshall, S. D., & Roediger, H. L. (2006). Does expanded retrieval produce benefits over equal-spacing? Explorations of spacing effects in healthy aging and early stage Alzheimer's disease. Psychology and Aging, 21, 19-31.
• Pashler, H., Rohrer, D., & Cepeda, N. J. (2006). Temporal spacing and learning. Observer, 19, 19.
• Roediger, H. L., & Karpicke, J. D. (2006). The power of testing memory: Basic research and implications for educational practice. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 181-210.