Standpoint feminism unites many feminist epistemologies. Standpoint feminist theorists attempt to do two things:

[1] critique dominant conventional epistemologies in the social and natural sciences

[and]

[2] defend the coherence of feminist knowledge(Andermahr et al. 1997).

Clough (1994), summarizes standpoint as,

‘the development of a feminist or women’s standpoint epistemology [and a] criticism of both the methods of science and the epistemology which grounds them. A feminist or women’s standpoint epistemology proposes to make women’s experiences instead of men’s experiences the point of departure.

Standpoint feminism's basic tenet is to place women's experiences as central - as a point of resistance - to the 'normal' male hegemony that dominates traditional fields of knowledge, for example, in the sciences.

Feminists believe that woman's oppression is universal, that gender is not neutral, and that the personal is political. Women are not a homogeneous group and a variety of feminist theories address this diversity. The three theories dominating the 70s and 80s were: Radical, Marxist, and Liberal feminism. Multiple theories have since developed addressing issues that the Big Three failed to fully analyze (Stacey, 1997). This essay will examine one perspective, Standpoint feminism, by reviewing various feminist perspectives on this theory.

Initially, standpoint theories addressed women's standing in the sexual division of labour. Standpoint theorists such as Donna Haraway (1983) sought to show standpoint as the,

'notion of situated knowledge...to counter the apparent relativism of Standpoint theory.'

Today's standpoint theory developed in feminist sociology perceives that it is,

'... a relational standpoint, rather than arising inevitably from the experience of women...'(Andermahr et al., 1997).

Standpoint feminism is a position taken by feminist theorists that places knowledge at the nucleus of research. It agues for,

a specifically woman’s epistemological standpoint.( Assiter, 1996).

Harstock (1983), defines standpoint feminism as,

the attempt to develop, on the methodological base provided by Marxian theory, an important epistemological tool for understanding and opposing all forms of domination.

Standpoint feminism is rooted in Marxist ideology. Hennessey (1995), posits,

Marxism’s usefulness to feminism is that it understands the social ensemble of economic, political, and ideological arrangements.

A feminist standpoint therefore is essential to examining the systemic oppressions in society that devalue women’s knowledge. Standpoint Feminism and Discourse Poststructuralist theorist critique standpoint theory as a,

knowledge project that correctly  produced knowledge will lead to the adoption of the best political strategies...'(Andermahr et al., 1997).

Epistemology

Epistemology is that section of philosophy concerned with the production of knowledge. Feminist epistemologies initially were concerned with the production of knowledge that objectified women in the production of knowledge. New developments in feminist thought have expanded on that premise to assert women as central to the production of knowledge through our standpoint, as subjects, rather than accepting the traditional masculine bias that pushes women's knowledge to the periphery.

Feminist Reaction to Standpoint

Poststructuralist theorists critique Standpoint theory as, "the knowledge project which assumes that correctly produced knowledge will lead to the adoption of the best political strategies."(Andermahr et al. 1997).

There is a conflict between postmodernism and Standpoint theorists. Many feminist theorists perceive postmodernist theory as fragmentary. Neilsen (1990), for example, claims that,

…standpoint begins from, but moves beyond the experience of women.

She further asserts that from a postmodern perspective, "We cannot arrive at anything approaching the truth."

Knowledge has been presented generally from a gender-specific perspective. Women have typically been relegated to the margins of that knowledge. For example, in the information age, there is a definite gender bias that tends to show technological knowledge as synonymous with masculinity.

The perusal of the content of print and web based media, will affirm this claim. As a 'political strategy' then, standpoint theories resist the domination of male viewpoints, in order to get a more balanced perspective on various issues.

Liz Stanley (1997) addresses this tendency to marginalize women's knowledge as incidental to that of men. Stanley like many others (Morritt, 1997; Hennessey, 1995; Harstock, 1983), analyses the work of Sandra Harding, one of the leading spokespersons on Standpoint feminism).

As mentioned previously, the initial standpoint theory evolved in terms of women's standing in the sexual division of labour. There is a definite link and reliance between standpoint feminism and Marxist theory. Nancy M. Harstock (1983:28), sums up this link as,

"...the attempt to develop, on the methodological base provided by Marxian theory, an important epistemological tool for understanding and opposing all forms of domination - a feminist standpoint."

Harstock argues that Marxian theory of class domination is easily transferable to that of the oppression of women, which among other things, is based on gender-biases. She acknowledges that despite criticisms of Marxian theory for its lack of attention to gender as a valid oppression, it is nonetheless important because,

"...his [Marx]distinction between appearance and essence, circulation and production, abstract and concrete... are valid to the feminist standpoint.

Standpoint theorist Sandra Harding (1993), argues that science is socially constructed. Morritt (1997), in a study looking at computer usage by professional women in education, relies heavily on Harding's claims to substantiate her thesis. In that study, Morrit contends that feminists must have a 'starting point' of women different from their own lived experiences in order to transcend their ' experiential limitations'. Andermahr et al. (1997), proposes 'the need for a feminist public discourse which is independent of personal experience'.

Morritt (1997:2), uses Harding's eight-claim discourse on standpoint theory to substantiate her research investigating,

'...the use of computer based technologies by professional women education through the lens of a theoretical framework that is sensitive to the unique experiences of women."

Morritt's study is an example of the use of a standpoint epistemology to conduct feminist research.

She does not necessarily embrace standpoint theories in their entirety per se, Morritt asserts that, 'Feminist epistemologies and computer based technological advances are frequently in tension with each other." Citing other feminist studies, she argues that,

' especially with respect to gender, computers are not neutral.' (Morritt, 1997:15). The problem lies in the 'masculine' characteristics given to technologies such as the computer which devalues women's knowledge base.

Although Morritt uses Harding's discourse on standpoint feminism to substantiate the assertions about the lack of gender neutrality of the computer in terms of women using 'computer based technologies in education', she also offers a critique of certain aspects of the theory (Morritt, 1997:15). According to Morritt, standpoint feminism is flawed because it is,

"...a privileged perspective that favors white, Western, educated women of economic means."

The critique offered by Morritt that standpoint feminism invalidates the knowledge base of women of colour due to its generalizations, is valid.

Black feminists/womanists  Patricia Hill-Collins (1997), in  Black Feminist Thought, for example, refers to the black 'standpoint' throughout the text. Hill-Collin's use of the term 'standpoint' consistently in the text alludes to the tendency to reduce all women to one homogenous group. This example reflects the point made previously regarding the conflict between postmodern feminist theories and standpoint theories.

(Assiter, 1990), notes that, as a point of resistance and empowerment:

Feminist researchers have shown how sexist and adrocentric bias in all the sciences have affected the results of research, the methods employed, the problems selected for investigation and the hypothesis generated.

Assiter commends Harding’s standpoint that the sciences are inherently biased towards gender, race, class, and sexuality. In her view, Harding’s perspectives show, ‘ emancipatory values it contributes to removing oppressive power relations.’

Hennessey (1995) affirms that standpoint feminist theory, empowers women’s ways of knowing. She argues that:

Most significantly, in attending to the complex material forces that structure the relations between social positioning and ways of knowing, feminist standpoint theories have challenged the assumption that simply to be a woman guarantees a feminist understanding of the world

Hennessey also refers to Harding’s work as part of the canon for standpoint feminism. Reiterating Harding’s position that there is no typical woman’s life', Hennesey critiques standpoint because,

…the material link between feminism as a discourse and women’s lives aren’t explained.

For Hennessey this lack of connection in standpoint theory is problematic and must be resolved.

Standpoint feminism as the overview in this essay shows, has encouraged much discourse. Sandra Harding’s theories are generally used as the canon on standpoint feminism, particularly standpoints on women and science. Though not all feminists agree with her standpoint, the basis of Harding's assertion to place women’s knowledge as central in science is not debatable.

Andermahr, Sonya, Terry Lovel, Carol Wolkowitz. (1997) A Concise Glossary of Feminist Theory. London and New York: Arnold

 Assiter, Alison. (1996). Enlightened Women: Modernist Feminism in a Postmodern Age. London and New York : Routledge

Clough, Patricia, Ticineto. (1994) Feminist Thought. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers.

Harstock, Nancy, M. (1983)  ‘The Feminist Standpoint’. In Discovering Reality. Sandra Harding and Merril B. Hintikka (Eds). Holland; Boston; London : D. Reidel Publishing Company.

Hill Collins, Patricia. (2000) Black Feminist Thought. New York: Routledge.

Hennessey, Rosemary. (1995) Women’s Lives/Feminist Knowledge: Feminist Standpoint as Ideology Critique. http://csf.colrado.edu/mail/matfem/950337.html

Neilsen McCarl, Joyce (Ed.) (1990). Feminist Methods . Boulder CO: Westview Press. http://carnap.umd.edu/social_dimensions_of_knowledge/Standpoint2.html

Morritt, Hope . (1997). Women and Computer-Based Technologies: A Feminist Perspective. Lanham, MD : University Press of America.

Stacey, Jackie. (1997) . Introduction to Women’s Studies (2^nd Ed). Victoria Robinson and Diane Richardson (Eds). New York: New York University Press. [54-76]

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